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Beyond
City Sidewalks:
The
Blind Traveler in a Rural Environment
by Douglas Boone and Christine Boone
Reprinted from American Rehabilitation
The
teaching of orientation and mobility to persons who
are blind continues to be an evolving profession. In
January of 1929, the Seeing Eye established a dog guide
training school at Morristown, New Jersey, providing
the first formalized travel training program for blind
adults. After World War II, the long cane gained wide
acceptance as an effective travel tool as well. Today,
orientation and mobility instructors provide training
to blind people of all ages, in environments ranging
from large metropolitan areas to small towns. Those
of us who work in the profession constantly strive to
provide our students with the most comprehensive travel
training available, enabling them to participate fully
in employment, family life, and community activities.
One area of mobility training which remains somewhat
uncharted, however, is that of rural and recreational
travel.
While
many working age blind people choose to live in urban
areas in order to avail themselves of public transportation
and other services, many of the senior blind, along
with a significant number of children and working age
adults, make their homes in rural settings. Additionally,
some of our nation's most inviting vacation spots lie
at the edge of civilization and beyond. As blind people
play an ever-increasing role in the mainstream of society,
they find themselves needing or wanting to travel independently
and skillfully in rural and even untrammeled places.
Through our own experiences, both as instructors and
travelers, we have developed some effective techniques
which enable blind people to travel freely while living,
working, and recreating "far from the madding crowd."
Before elaborating on these methods, it might be helpful
to examine the framework into which these techniques
are laid.
Many
of you are familiar with the discovery learning
approach to orientation and mobility instruction. An
ever-increasing number of professionals in the field
of work with the blind are adopting this teaching method
with exciting results. Students who engage in discovery
learning tend to possess greater confidence and can
apply their skills in a wider range of travel settings.
Dr. Allan Dodds, in his book, Mobility Training for
Visually Handicapped People: A Person-Centered Approach,
clearly distinguishes between the "authoritarian" style
of instruction and the "egalitarian" instructor, who
employs the discovery learning method (Dodds, 1988).
The benefits of this approach to cane travel instruction
are far too numerous to detail in this article. However,
a brief explanation seems appropriate.
The
discovery learning approach simply involves instruction
through the use of problem solving and information seeking
techniques rather than route travel and rote memorization.
This method teaches the student to evaluate his or her
surroundings and apply the transferable skills of travel,
using dog or long cane, to the situation at hand. Discovery
learning requires us to make some basic assumptions
about our students. The student is presumed capable
of collecting information which is present in the environment
such as sound cues, tactile variations, use of the sun
and or wind, and other environmental attributes that
may be present. Blind travelers must learn to recognize,
evaluate, and incorporate all of this environmental
information if they are to be effective travelers. The
average blind person, if given an opportunity to experience
the benefits of discovery learning, has no difficulty
in meeting this challenge. Discovery learning is further
characterized by instructor-guided questioning of the
student to assist in finding a solution. When a student
encounters challenges in the course of a lesson, no
answers are provided. Instead, the instructor asks him
or her to assess and utilize information readily at
hand, nurturing the student's ability to solve problems.
As a result, the student also learns to evaluate his
or her own technique and take corrective action when
necessary. Students who successfully master travel through
discovery learning travel independently and successfully
in new areas as well as familiar ones. They also deal
easily with unexpected obstacles such as construction,
poor directions, or inclement weather.
The
advent of the discovery learning method is especially
applauded by blind business persons whose jobs often
involve extensive travel. Their careers are enhanced
and in some cases even facilitated through the use of
these travel techniques. The rural traveler is particularly
well served by the discovery method of learning. Since
rural areas are certainly not consistent, the flexibility
and problem solving ability that accompany this approach
are essential to independent travel on the farm or in
the wilderness.
Choosing
the Cane
We believe that it is the instructor's responsibility
to recommend a specific cane and provide reasons for
that endorsement. Recommendations should be based upon
teaching experience and the experiences/opinions of
blind travelers. Our selection of a cane is based upon
our own field testing, during years of instruction,
together with the opinions of countless former students.
We
find the rigid, hollow fiberglass cane to be the most
versatile tool for overall use in traveling. This lightweight,
flexible cane arcs easily when held loosely in the hand,
causing minimal fatigue to the wrist and fingers. A
round metal tip completes our ideal cane, sliding easily
through tall grasses, without catching or sticking.
The metal tip also produces excellent auditory information
when used on hard surfaces while tending to glide over
rough areas and small cracks. The solid fiberglass cane,
also with a metal tip, shares many of the same advantages
as the hollow counterpart. It takes second place in
weight, being approximately three times heavier, increasing
wrist fatigue. In the area of durability however, the
solid fiberglass cane ranks superior: It is almost indestructible.
Efficient,
safe travel is best achieved when using a cane that
reaches to chin height in almost all cases. After the
student develops speed and confidence, additional length
will be added. We find support for this length of cane
(Foundations of Orientation and Mobility, 1980) in short,
but insightful reference to the value of the extra length:
On
this whole subject uninitiated members of society are
often vocal in behalf of "a totally blind man I know
who never had any lessons and does beautifully." And
indeed individuals have done down through the ages.
The most noted of these was an Englishman named John
Metcalf, who in the 18th century was a road builder
and performed authenticated feats of getting about by
himself on foot and on horseback, once guiding a sighted
individual through a bog in dark of night. His doings
were regarded by his contemporaries and by succeeding
generations as little short of marvelous. To the present
they are less so, for an old print shows he had a cane
so long it was almost up to his hat. This instrument
foreshadowed the principle on which one type of formal
instruction was to be built when it finally arrived
(Mannix, 1911).
We
find that the extra cane length allows for a more natural
positioning of the cane, while providing additional
response time when encountering obstacles in the environment.
The confidence gained from locating obstacles in ample
time to react, without panic, is very important. This
is no small consideration when treading the less traveled
path!
We
include a brief lesson in storing the rigid cane in
a car, which allows graceful entering/exiting of an
automobile. This simple trick involves placing the cane
between the seat and door, with its tip to the front.
The cane is then pushed down to lie along the floor
where it will not interfere with other passengers climbing
in and out. This method takes less time than collapsing
a folding or a telescoping cane, and it facilitates
learning by encouraging the student to take the cane
on outings, using it in a variety of travel situations.
Rural
(Country) Travel
When introducing travel skills in a country setting,
where dirt or gravel roads are the norm, it is just
as important for new rural students to develop consistency
in basic cane technique as it is for their urban peers.
Grip, cane position, width and height of the arc, and
keeping in step should be taught and practiced in an
area near the person's residence, until confidence has
developed. During the course of the lessons on basic
technique, we introduce an awareness of available environmental
information. While continuing to stress consistency
in the mechanics, we are laying the groundwork for future
use of such cues as sun, wind, and traffic.
Many
people in rural areas are accustomed to using cardinal
point directions. When someone becomes blind, the knowledge
that the barn is north of the house provides a great
starting point for an early travel lesson. After mastering
the basic cane arc (usually accomplished through repeated
trips along a path between the house and driveway),
the student selects a building which he needs to locate.
At this time, the technique for minimizing entanglement
of the cane in tall grass is introduced. Indeed, this
simple modification from the usual use of the cane is
also effective in winter travel. The student holds the
cane in a pencil grip, maintaining a two point touch.
The arc is modified by poking the cane into the tall
grass (or snow) and pulling it back out. The procedure
is repeated on the other side of the arc. Providing
for information on the path which lies beneath the grass.
Concurrent
with the introduction of the technique for traveling
in tall grass, the student learns the value of the sun
as an aid to orientation. Here, a simple drill proves
most effective. In order to utilize sun cues, a traveler
must be able to localize the sun while walking. Using
cardinal point directions and common knowledge regarding
the changing position of the sun throughout the day,
the student walks a straight line in a given direction
with the sun as a guide. The person is then instructed
to stop and turn in a different direction, again using
the feel of the sun as a guide. These exercises are
repeated frequently during the early days of travel
training in the rural setting until the student is adept
at orienting him/herself with the aid of the sun. The
exercises are not confined to locating only north, south,
east, or west but also include northeast, northwest,
and so on.
Only
after the student is proficient in using cardinal point
directions do we introduce a Braille compass. A number
of rural travel situations, particularly on a farm,
require the combination of landmark location and directional
travel. The student may need to find a particular corner
post, then walk several hundred yards, northeast, through
an open field to locate an irrigation pump. On a sunny
day, the sun can be used. On a cloudy day, our traveler
uses a compass to confirm the northeasterly direction
while crossing the field and finding the irrigation
equipment.
Creating
sound cues around the farm offers another useful alternative.
Leaving a radio turned on in the barn or toolshed enables
the blind farmer to locate each building instantly,
facilitating rapid, easy movement from one place to
another. The volume needn't be inordinately loud to
be heard in the relative quiet of the farm. Hanging
tin cans or wind chimes on the irrigation pump works
well to create a sound cue in the middle of a field,
where using a radio is not practical. While not useful
on a day without wind, the chimes should almost always
provide at least an intermittent sound cue.
The
Country Lane
While learning to travel down a country lane, several
pieces of information will assist the blind traveler
in maintaining orientation. Ruts or irregularities in
the road surface provide a great source of information
and should be noted when introducing the student to
the lane. The relaxed, confident blind traveler would
easily notice the ruts and recognize their value in
keeping oriented. The beginning student, by contrast,
may feel somewhat overwhelmed, with low self-confidence
and high anxiety, necessitating that the instructor
draw attention to the seemingly obvious. During that
first walk down the lane, sun and wind cues are again
called into play and their usefulness stressed as a
strategy for maintaining orientation. If a student becomes
disoriented, we prefer to ask questions to allow for
problem solving to occur. Students who travel in the
country, where the population is sparse, must learn
to rely on themselves and their own instincts, which
are almost unerringly correct. The primary purpose of
these first few sojourns is to develop problem solving
skills and self-confidence while gaining insight regarding
the use of effective travel alternatives. The student
is well served by concentrating on these things rather
than worrying about completing the formal "assignment."
In keeping with the discovery learning approach to instruction,
the instructor's questions become more general as the
skill and confidence of the student develops . At the
conclusion of training, the student possesses the ability
to problem solve independently, correcting mistakes
without the aid of an instructor.
Additional
information along the lane provides useful assistance.
The hard packed tire tracks on the dirt or gravel lane,
the lane's edge (usually lined with weeds), and the
sound of sporadic traffic in the distance can be effectively
used while traversing the lane. Other information in
a given setting can be useful if put in context with
the route being traveled. The hum of electrical wires
along the country road, the rustle of a lone tree somewhere
en route and myriad other cues can be used in combination
with directional orientation to navigate the country
lane.
Out
of the Lane, and Down the Road!
The student will benefit from prompting by the instructor
regarding the various cues that can be used to locate
the convergence of the farm lane with the county road.
Encouraging the student to make effective use of traffic,
even if sparse, starts during the first lesson by prompting
him to listen to the distant approach of any vehicle
passing by on the county road. The sound of cars traveling
along the road tells the student exactly where that
road is located and draws an auditory line, marking
the direction in which the road leads. The instructor
also provides specific information regarding the change
in the texture underfoot as the lane meets the county
road. If it is a dirt lane meeting a gravel county road,
the transition is immediately obvious. Where both roads
are gravel, turning and passing cars will cause the
gravel to form a pile at one side or in the center of
the intersection. These piles of gravel will many times
be accompanied by a slight slope and/or a well worn,
hard packed tire track. Learning to use this information
warrants taking as much time as the student needs to
discern the distinguishing characteristics of the intersection.
This information will be used to find other lanes along
the county road and will enable the traveler to locate
his own lane on the return trip.
In
rural America, cars traditionally drive down the middle
of the road, moving to the right only when meeting oncoming
traffic, or perhaps at the crest of a hill. When walking
down a rural road, the accepted pedestrian rule concerning
facing oncoming traffic will, out of necessity, be set
aside. The blind traveler should gather certain information
about his destination before setting out along the county
road. This information is almost identical to that required
by a sighted traveler. How many roads lie between his
lane and the destination? Which way must he turn upon
arrival? The successful traveler must walk on the side
of the road where he will find the intersecting road
for which he is looking. In this way, the blind country
traveler can easily locate his turnoff.
To
locate another residence down the gravel county road
a combination of compass direction, sun cues (if available),
distance, time required in walking to the destination,
and changes in the gravel (the piling mentioned earlier)
will assist in find a neighbor's lane. Also useful is
the disappearance of weeds along the road just prior
to or concurrent with an intersecting lane. Other pieces
of information may be present and by questioning the
student, such things as the smell or sound of barnyard
animals, the sound of an air conditioner, the smell
of a furnace which has just turned on, provide useful
cues.
What
about going from the county road to a hard surface road
such as blacktop or pavement? Along a busy road of this
type there generally exists an edging or shoulder that
is suitable for walking along. The shoulder may be dirt,
gravel, or an extension of the blacktop surface. If
the shoulder is gravel or dirt and in good repair, the
student can walk approximately a cane's length from
the edge of the road surface. The student will quickly
discover that being too far away from the road leads
to encounters with weeds and washouts, while being too
close will cause the passing cars to honk or otherwise
respond in a less than positive fashion. This problem
is solved by dividing the distance between the edge
of the road and the grass line. As with travel in the
city, the sound of traffic appearing in the distance,
passing alongside, and fading away is used to assist
orientation when traffic is present. If the road surface
is continuous with the shoulder, then it is a simple
task to occasionally arc to the side near the grass
or weed line to maintain a reasonable distance from
the parallel traffic. In a few instances, the road surface
can extend to what can only be termed a ditch, not suitable
for walking. This poses a problem for both the sighted
and blind pedestrian and raises the question of safety.
Each situation should be carefully considered, with
the test for safely being the same for the blind pedestrian
as for the sighted. The fact is, a few areas exist where
it is simply not safe for anyone along the roadside.
The
Small Town
Travel in a small town, where no sidewalks exist and
streets are predominantly gravel, requires use of some
of the approaches previously described for traveling
in the country. Time, distance, direction (using the
sun), the transition of one street to another resulting
in piles of gravel, slopes of the tire tracks, and the
hard packed gravel where the cars usually drive are
some of the cues which might be used. Ask your students
to tell you when they get to an intersection by using
some of the cues discussed previously. Additionally,
some of the information found in larger cities can be
employed in the rural small town. Teaching the student
to note the sound change and the feeling of things opening
up enables that student to know when he or she reaches
the intersection. There may also be some prominent or
subtle landmarks that the student may choose to use.
Mailboxes, sidewalks leading from houses to the street,
driveways, and, perhaps, wind chimes are just some of
the landmarks which might be available. By working a
given route several times, focusing on identifying useful
cues and permanent landmarks, the student is empowered
to apply the same technique when exploring other routes
independently. Again, the discovery method allows students
to become practiced in analyzing situations, separating
useful information from the general surroundings, and
using that information to assist them in finding their
destination.
Finding
specific businesses in the downtown area of a small
town is not unlike locating stores in a shopping mall.
The sound of closing car doors, pedestrians' foot falls
as they step in and out of stores, and odors from a
bakery, bar, feed and grain, or hardware store provide
blind travelers with a wealth of information about the
shops they pass on their travels. A particular business
is located in much the same manner as it would be in
a larger town or city.
In
some small towns, paved streets may exist but no sidewalks
paralleling the street are present. In this case, the
traveler walks along the edge of the street, using the
parallel curb as one source of information. We encourage
the student to utilize the sun and the sound of traffic,
if present, in combination with the tap of the cane
against the parallel curb. Assuming the student is on
the left side of the street, he/she should walk in or
near the gutter and maintain a good arc with the left
swing of the cane encountering the curb. In cases where
the student will be walking several blocks without needing
to locate a particular address or street, the left arc
need only contact the curb every three or four steps.
Constant shorelining is not necessary for most students
and, if used full distance, tends to slow the rate of
travel. Shorelining may also focus the student's attention
on the curb and away from other more important bits
of information in the environment. As the student nears
an intersection, the open space of the converging street
results in an "opening up," where the sound is markedly
different and more wind movement is felt. Additionally,
streets in the country (as well as in town) are crowned
in the center, sloping down to the curb or edge on either
side. This kind of road surface facilitates runoff when
it rains and it is also easily detectable by the blind
traveler. The road dips slightly as the traveler approaches
an intersection, then, rises gradually as he or she
crosses the intersecting street.
Locating
a specific residence along either the gravel or paved
street is a matter of knowing how many streets need
to be crossed, the side where the residence is located,
and the approximate position of the residence in the
block. To confirm location of the correct address, landmarks
(which are best discovered by the student, not the teacher)
can be helpful. As previously discussed, these landmarks
will vary from situation to situation.
The Recreation Side of Travel
An interesting but challenging request came from one
of our students who lived along the Oregon coast. In
Oregon, all beaches are public domain and, while it
is possible to own property set back from the beach,
a significant expanse of beach/sand dunes may separate
a residence and the ocean's edge. Such was the case
of one cane travel student who wished to walk to the
beach and then take walks along the ocean edge. A path,
of sorts, led from his home through the dunes to the
beach. The student's travel skills were good, so getting
to the beach was not a problem. Returning was another
matter! The shifting sand where the high tides contacted
the sand dunes effectively eliminated the use of landmarks.
He had tried hanging wind chimes but these were either
blown down or removed by someone walking along the beach.
The solution was found in a talking clock with a time
elapse feature. As the student left the convergence
of the trail and the beach, he started the clock. He
then walked a desired amount of time away from the trail.
When he stopped and turned to come back, he checked
his clock to see how much time had elapsed. He then
walked back toward the trail for the same amount of
time as was spent going away from the trail. We found
that this system allowed him to stop very close to the
trail on his return and all that was needed was a systematic
check with the cane in order to locate the trail. The
one variable, in addition to walking at the same gait,
that needed to be taken into account was the occasional
encounter with another beach walker. It was important
to pause the clock when this occurred to account for
the time spent talking. Numerous trials were conducted
and all resulted in success, with the student enjoying
recreation in the form of a solitary stroll.
Many
blind travelers enjoy hiking through a wood or along
a rugged mountain trail. The techniques employed in
hiking and packing will vary somewhat, depending upon
the terrain involved. Woodland trails are generally
fairly smooth, broken by occasional roots or rocks but
otherwise flat. In walking these trails, most blind
hikers find it helpful to maintain a normal cane arc
while keeping the cane on the ground as it moves back
and forth. Thus the traveler easily detects objects
protruding from the ground and can step over them.
The
rocky mountain trail offers quite a different challenge.
Here the ground often lies completely hidden beneath
rocks and boulders. In such a setting, the pencil grip
works well. The traveler uses the cane almost as he/she
would when climbing stairs, arcing it back and forth
directly in front to judge the position of rocks and
find a foothold. When traversing steep or rocky trails,
blind hikers also use their feet to feel the terrain
beneath them. This enables them to maintain balance
while climbing.
Because
we love the Colorado Rockies and the beautiful high
mountains of New Mexico, we often find ourselves in
areas where feet and hands are both required to scramble
up a steep incline. Here, having a chain or chord on
one's cane is helpful as the traveler can simply loop
the chain over his/her wrist, letting the cane slide
along behind, while negotiating that part of the trail.
We do not recommend folding or telescoping canes for
hiking along rugged rails. The sturdiness of the straight
cane is far more dependable in the uneven, unpredictable
areas that comprise our national parks and wilderness.
We have also concluded, through trial and error. That
a cane with a rounded metal tip works best when hiking
or packing. The nylon tip lodges easily in crevasses
between rocks and sticks in the soft dirt of a woodland
path. By contrast, the metal tip tends to glide over
these places and seldom causes a jam.
The
Braille compass is another part of the hiker's standard
equipment. Although not an absolute necessity, the compass
provides valuable information on the direction of travel,
enabling the traveler to quickly set a course in the
opposite direction for the return trip. On a sunny day,
the direction of one's travel is easily maintained,
but after sundown or on a cloudy day, the compass is
especially helpful. The recreational traveler should
also include a folding cane in his/her pack. When the
day's plans include horseback riding or canoeing, the
straight cane can remain in camp, while the folding
cane rides easily in a pocket or backpack as the traveler
paddles downstream or sits astride a horse. The folding
cane also provides a backup if the straight cane should
break during a trip.
When
following a woodland or mountain trail, one generally
begins and ends at the trailhead. The trails either
wind in a complete circle or reach the summit, at which
you turn and retrace your steps to the starting point.
Before embarking on a trail walk, the blind hiker, like
his/her sighted counterpart, should get some information
about the trail. How long a walk is involved? Does the
trail form a circle, or must one walk to the end and
return along the same path? Do other trails branch off
from the main path? The blind traveler must take careful
note of the surroundings at the trailhead since he/she
will need to recognize them upon his/her return. This
is not difficult as the trailhead usually widens into
a more developed area such as a parking lot, visitor's
center, or large clearing. While proceeding along the
trail, the traveler should keep track of the movement
of the sun (if it is shining), the rise and fall of
the terrain, and the amount of time spent on the trail.
These factors, together with the use of a Braille compass,
can assist the hiker in keeping track of his or her
location during the hike. If other trails branch off
from the main route, blind and sighted hikers alike
must locate each fork as they travel to facilitate a
safe and speedy return trip.
Another
area in which a blind vacationer might find him/herself
could include a rushing stream or a quiet but swiftly
flowing river with a cozy and secluded cabin nearby.
We visit just such a spot every summer and it offers
unique and spectacular venue for solitary morning walks
and fishing expeditions. This little cabin is located
in the midst of a pristine wilderness. In fact, the
National Forest Service recently designated the area
as such under the Federal Wilderness Act and the cabin
is the last human habitation between that point and
the headwaters of the Colorado River.
The first step in orienting oneself to this kind of
setting involves a thorough exploration of the area
immediately surrounding the cabin. It is important to
note the terrain and any prominent landmarks within
20 yards or so the building. This exercise works best
when the blind person explores alone. In this way he/she
can become completely familiar with the area before
striking out along the footpath that leads deeper into
the mountains. Walking down to the river is the next
step.
When
walking toward or along a body of water, the blind traveler
must use a good cane arc at all times. Sometimes a smooth
sandy beach precedes the water and sometimes the water
itself makes a lapping, gurgling, or rushing sound.
In these instances, the traveler receives ample information
regarding his proximity to the water. At other times,
however, the water flows quietly along and lies directly
at the bottom of a rocky slope. Such is the case at
our mountain retreat. In fact, tiny inlets run into
the bank under the grass and a number of hikers, blind
and sighted, have stepped in one and taken an unexpected
swim in the chilly Colorado. Again we find that a pencil
grip works best here, and, because of the hidden inlets,
the cane must firmly contact the ground at every step.
This is not always easy, as fallen trees, rocks, and
undergrowth blanket the steep slope. However, with an
hour of practice the technique soon becomes second nature.
Sound
travels much further in the wilderness than in town,
providing an excellent travel tool for the blind explorer.
A radio left on the porch can be heard at a great distance.
We can also preserve the silence and simply sing out
a greeting when we know we have drawn near. The answering
shout will leave no doubt as to the location of the
cabin. The talking clock (mentioned earlier) can be
used here as well. Keeping time on the trip upstream
can enable the hiker to accurately determine when he/she
reaches the vicinity of the building. The earlier exploration
then quickly pays off and one is able to locate the
entrance easily.
We
simply cannot address in one article all of the recreational
travel activities in which blind people participate.
The body of literature in this area remains small, but
as more blind travelers discover the pleasures of country
travel, we look for this to change. For some excellent
tips on fishing and related matters, we suggest "Hook,
Line and Golf Balls," by David Walker, The Braille
Monitor (July 1995).
Unfortunately,
some professional orientation and mobility instructors,
together with members of the general public, remain
unaware of the relative ease with which blind people
can and do travel in rural and recreational areas. We
hope that our teaching experience, guided as it was
by enthusiastic, adventuresome blind travelers, will
benefit our colleagues as much as it has enhanced our
own instructional abilities. When an instructor begins
with the premise that the blind student possesses the
ability to travel independently, given the right tools
and training, that confidence flows to the student.
Through discovery learning and problem solving, the
student learns to rely on himself and trust his instincts.
The techniques outlined herein enable blind travelers
to successfully navigate the millions of square miles
of land that lie beyond the city sidewalks.
Bibliography
1.
Richard L. Welsh & Bruce Blasch (1980). Foundations
of Orientation & Mobility, p. 582. American Foundation
for the Blind.
2.
Allan Dodds (1988). Mobility Training for Visually
Handicapped People, A Person-Centered Approach.
Croom Helm Ltd.
3.
David Walker. Hook, Line and Golf Balls, The Braille
Monitor, July 1995.
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